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Latihan TOEFL Reading 16: The Tragedy of the Commons

Baca passage berikut dengan teliti, lalu kerjakan 15 soalnya. Jawaban dan pembahasan bisa dibuka setelah kamu mencoba sendiri.

In an influential 1968 essay, ecologist Garrett Hardin described a scenario in which multiple herders share a common pasture, each free to graze as many animals as they wish. Because each herder receives the full benefit of adding another animal while sharing the cost of overgrazing with everyone else, rational self-interest leads each individual to keep adding animals, even though the cumulative effect degrades the pasture for all.

Hardin argued that this dynamic, which he termed the tragedy of the commons, applies broadly to shared resources lacking clear ownership or regulation, including fisheries, groundwater, and the atmosphere's capacity to absorb pollution. Without some mechanism to align individual incentives with collective welfare, he contended, such resources are prone to overexploitation and eventual collapse.

Later researchers, notably economist Elinor Ostrom, challenged the assumption that only privatization or government regulation could prevent such tragedies. Ostrom's extensive fieldwork documented numerous communities that successfully managed shared resources sustainably for generations through locally developed rules, monitoring systems, and social norms, without resorting to either full private ownership or centralized government control.

Soal

1. What is the passage primarily about?

  1. Describing the history of animal herding
  2. Explaining the tragedy of the commons and later challenges to Hardin's original conclusions
  3. Comparing government and private ownership models in detail
  4. Arguing that all shared resources inevitably collapse
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: B. Explaining the tragedy of the commons and later challenges to Hardin's original conclusions

Passage menjelaskan konsep tragedy of the commons lalu tantangan Ostrom terhadap kesimpulan awal Hardin.

2. The word 'cumulative' in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to

  1. Completely random
  2. Immediately visible
  3. Occurring only once
  4. Building up gradually as a total effect
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: D. Building up gradually as a total effect

'Cumulative effect' berarti efek yang terakumulasi dari tindakan berulang banyak pihak.

3. According to paragraph 1, why does each herder add more animals despite the overall harm?

  1. Because herders do not understand the consequences
  2. Because each receives the full benefit while sharing the cost of overgrazing with everyone else
  3. Because animals reproduce uncontrollably
  4. Because government regulations require it
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: B. Because each receives the full benefit while sharing the cost of overgrazing with everyone else

Disebutkan eksplisit struktur insentif ini di paragraf 1.

4. According to paragraph 2, what examples of shared resources does Hardin's argument apply to?

  1. Only urban housing
  2. Only private farmland
  3. Only national parks
  4. Fisheries, groundwater, and the atmosphere's pollution absorption capacity
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: D. Fisheries, groundwater, and the atmosphere's pollution absorption capacity

Disebutkan eksplisit ketiga contoh sumber daya bersama ini.

5. It can be inferred from paragraph 1 that the pasture scenario represents

  1. A case where cooperation always occurs naturally
  2. A conflict between individual incentive and collective long-term welfare
  3. A situation with no possible negative outcome
  4. A purely hypothetical scenario with no real-world relevance
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: B. A conflict between individual incentive and collective long-term welfare

Skenario padang rumput ini adalah ilustrasi konflik antara insentif individu dan kesejahteraan bersama jangka panjang.

6. Why does the author introduce Elinor Ostrom in paragraph 3?

  1. To compare fisheries and groundwater management specifically
  2. To present research that challenges Hardin's assumption about necessary solutions
  3. To describe Ostrom's personal biography in detail
  4. To argue that Hardin's essay was completely wrong about the problem itself
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: B. To present research that challenges Hardin's assumption about necessary solutions

Ostrom disebut sebagai peneliti yang menantang asumsi bahwa hanya privatisasi/regulasi pemerintah yang bisa mencegah tragedi ini.

7. The word 'exploitation' (over-) in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

  1. Careful conservation of a resource
  2. Excessive or harmful use of a resource
  3. Legal protection of a resource
  4. Complete abandonment of a resource
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: B. Excessive or harmful use of a resource

'Overexploitation' berarti pemakaian sumber daya secara berlebihan hingga merusak.

8. According to paragraph 3, what did Ostrom's fieldwork document?

  1. The complete failure of all commons management attempts
  2. Only privately owned resource systems
  3. Communities successfully managing shared resources through local rules and norms
  4. Only government-regulated resource systems
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: C. Communities successfully managing shared resources through local rules and norms

Disebutkan eksplisit temuan lapangan Ostrom tentang komunitas yang berhasil mengelola sumber daya bersama.

9. It can be inferred that Ostrom's findings suggest solutions to the tragedy of the commons can include

  1. Only full privatization
  2. Options beyond only privatization or centralized government regulation
  3. Only strict government control
  4. No viable solutions at all
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: B. Options beyond only privatization or centralized government regulation

Temuan Ostrom menunjukkan ada jalan ketiga selain privatisasi penuh atau kontrol pemerintah terpusat.

10. What is the relationship between paragraph 2 and paragraph 3?

  1. Paragraph 3 complicates or challenges the conclusion Hardin reaches in paragraph 2
  2. Paragraph 3 fully confirms paragraph 2 without modification
  3. Paragraph 3 simply restates paragraph 2
  4. Paragraph 3 is unrelated to paragraph 2
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: A. Paragraph 3 complicates or challenges the conclusion Hardin reaches in paragraph 2

Paragraf 3 menantang kesimpulan Hardin tentang solusi yang diperlukan.

11. The word 'prone to' in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to

  1. Responsible for preventing
  2. Completely immune to
  3. Likely to experience
  4. Unaware of
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: C. Likely to experience

'Prone to overexploitation' berarti rentan/cenderung mengalami eksploitasi berlebihan.

12. According to paragraph 1, in what year was Hardin's essay published?

  1. 2001
  2. 1945
  3. 1900
  4. 1968
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: D. 1968

Disebutkan eksplisit 'in an influential 1968 essay'.

13. According to paragraph 3, what methods did the communities Ostrom studied use to manage resources?

  1. Only strict government laws
  2. Locally developed rules, monitoring systems, and social norms
  3. Only complete privatization
  4. No management methods at all
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: B. Locally developed rules, monitoring systems, and social norms

Disebutkan eksplisit ketiga metode ini digunakan komunitas yang diteliti Ostrom.

14. It can be inferred that Hardin's original essay assumed

  1. That shared resources never face any risk
  2. That only privatization or government regulation could prevent resource overexploitation
  3. That local community management always works well
  4. That all herders would naturally cooperate
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: B. That only privatization or government regulation could prevent resource overexploitation

Paragraf 3 menyebut Ostrom 'challenged the assumption that only privatization or government regulation could prevent such tragedies' — menyiratkan itu asumsi awal Hardin.

15. What is paragraph 1 mainly about?

  1. Explaining Ostrom's research methodology
  2. Describing modern livestock farming practices
  3. Detailing fishery regulations
  4. Illustrating the tragedy of the commons through the example of shared pastureland
Lihat jawaban dan pembahasan

Jawaban: D. Illustrating the tragedy of the commons through the example of shared pastureland

Paragraf 1 mengilustrasikan konsep tragedy of the commons lewat contoh padang rumput bersama.

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